英语论文哪里有？本研究发现如下。首先，在宏观层面上，美国小说中的贵格主题经历了三个鲜明的阶段：从对殖民地历史的重新审视，到对贵格会“黄金时代”的回望，再到对美国社会工业化的回应。
Chapter One Literature Review
1.2 Studies on Quakerism and American Literature
Few studies have been conducted abroad concerning the influence of Quakerism onAmerican literature,and domestic research on this subject is scarce.
Caroline Crew is one of the first scholars who recognize the need for such a study.Crew(1903)predicts that Quakers will“gain in charm and poetic quality as to offer rich material tothe future romancer”in“The Quaker in Fiction”(253).As early as 1926,Doctor Henry SeidelCanby remarked that Quakers“have been neglected as a shaping force”(Quakers and Puritans457).Five years later,Dr.Canby(1931)carefully examined the influence of Quakerism on someeminent American writers,such as Irving,Cooper and Whitman,and asserted that its influenceon American mind,“though diffuse and mingled,is far greater than critics and historians have letus suppose”in his famous book Classic Americans(29).In The Quaker Influence in AmericanLiterature,Howard Hintz(1940)emphasizes the need for further study of Quaker fiction:“theprominence and the importance of the Quaker-strain in American letters is a subject which up tothe present time has not been fully recognized or adequately treated”(5).The book sketches theinfluence of Quakerism on certain writers,such as Thomas Penn,Emerson,Charles BrockdenBrown,Walt Whitman,and James Fenimore Cooper,pointing out the prominent position andsignificance of Quakerism in American literature.However,Frederick B.Tolles(1940)reviewsthe book and finds out numerous errors,such as false associations of certain writers like Brownwith Quaker backgrounds and imprecision in citations that might fail to lead readers who areinterested in Quakerism toward further reading.
Chapter Three Quaker Beliefs and Practices in the 19th-centuryAmerican Fiction
3.1 Mysticism
In a broad sense,all denominations of Christianity show mystical traits,which are mainlymanifested in their emphasis on the supernatural world rather than the material one.However,Quakerism stands out in terms of mystical qualities,especially through its doctrine of the InnerLight,which allows direct communication between human beings and God without any intermediaries.
3.1.1 Quaker Mysticism
The basic tenet of Quakerism is mysticism.According to Rufus Jones,Quaker mysticism“puts the emphasis on immediate awareness of relation with God,on direct and intimateconsciousness of the Divine Presence”(qtd.in Steele 6-7).Actually,in order to embody thisabstract concept in early Quaker writings,Professor Brand Blanshard identifies four aspects ofQuaker mysticism:First,Quaker mysticism refers to“a faculty that passed judgment on right andwrong”;second,it is“an organ for apprehending religious truth”;third,it is“a kind of occultdivination of natural fact”;fourth,it refers to“the indwelling presence of God himself”(qtd.inKimber 6).Then a detailed explanation of each aspect will be given.
Chapter Four Quaker Images in the 19th-century American Fiction
4.1 Loneliness:Indifference of the Family Relations
Most of the Quaker characters portrayed in the fictions are lonely,which is mainly reflectedin the indifferent relationships in a Quaker family.
Although Stowe endows the Quaker Halliday’s family with many amiable qualities,BarryLevy argues that“Quakers were ambivalent about domesticity itself”(17).This paradox has itsroots in the philosophy of Fox.Fox initially redefined Quakers as a holy tribe,a“RoyalHousehold of God”(qtd.in Levy 53),thus advocating a thorough spiritualization of all familyemotions.One of the important measures was to refine parenting.To Quaker parents,spiritualsafety was the top priority,so they were eager to pass on Quaker’s thoughts to the nextgenerations.However,this resulted in some weaknesses in Quaker families,such as a lack ofemotional expression between parents and their kids.Lord Jeffrey once ridiculed Quakerchildren,saying they were“inwardly chilled into a sort of Chinese apathy by the restraints in which they are continually subjected”(10).In addition,Quaker families’adamant sobriety canbe traced back to the 18th-century Quaker reforms that aimed to create a highly purified andmore introspection-focused church.According to Levy,during the American Quaker reformfrom 1750 to 1790,Pennsylvania Quakers disowned almost half of the rising generation ofQuaker children for improper behavior(16).Perhaps as Hamm notes,for Quakers,the purposeof parenting is“rearing young Friends who will self-consciously be apart from‘the world’”(199).While spiritualization of family relations also results in emotional restraint betweenQuaker spouses,the commoner theme displayed in novels is the indifferent relationship betweenQuaker parents and their children,highlighting the negative impact of Quakerism on familyconnections.
4.2 Eccentricity:Socially Marginalized Groups
Ryan frequently uses words such as“peculiar”and“eccentric”during his observation ofQuakers.Indeed,Quakers are always seen as a marginal and even repulsive group by otherdenominations,particularly the Puritans,and modern American society.However,it isnoteworthy that their eccentricity is not directly linked to the content of Quaker beliefs andpractices,but rather their stubborn adherence to them.In particular,Quakers’willingness to bemartyrs and their steadfast commitment to pacifism put them at odds with the American socialsituations.
The story of The Gentle Boy takes place in a Puritan community during the colonial erawhen Endicott was in power.He was a grim figure who frequently appeared in Hawthorn’sworks.As described in the story’s prologue,he was a person with“narrow mind and imperfecteducation,and his uncompromising bigotry was made hot and mischievous by violent and hastypassions...”(Hawthorne 86).Endicott’s intolerance towards pagans resulted in hanging of numerous Quakers,no wonder that Quaker historians of the period recorded his eventual deathas“death by rottenness”.Hence the setting in which the story takes place sets a somber mood.Atfirst,Hawthorne employs irony to satirize the Puritans’cruelty towards the Quakers,“the fines,imprisonments and stripes liberally distributed by our pious forefathers...”(85).In addition,Hawthorne also portrays the tree beneath which a Quaker martyr is buried as the“unlucky tree”,which is believed to“drop poison with its dew”by the Puritan community(Hawthorne 88).Byexaggerating the Puritans’prejudice against Quakers,the author effectively represents the graveinjustices that occurs during this period.
Conclusion
Since its establishment in North America in 1656,Quakerism has been developing in thenew world despite its tortuous experiences.Its unique and abundant beliefs and practices exerteda profound influence on the American value system and national character.
In the nineteenth century,although Quakerism was still not fully recognized by mainstreamAmerican society,it had already grown into a subtle powerful force,influencing various aspectsof American society.The inadequate recognition was basically attributed to its heterogeneousreligious beliefs and practices,and small population.Even so,Quakerism had already left muchprecious heritage in American literature.Some novelists directed their attention to the uniquesect,especially its values like the Inner Light and pacifism,and created many excellentQuakerism-related novels.
The novelists,represented by Mrs.Stowe,Hawthorne,Mitchell and Trowbridge,wereinfluenced dramatically by the increasingly growing Quakerism.They had much in common.Asfor location,most of them lived in Pennsylvania and New England,both of which offeredfreedom and tolerance for the rooting and growing of Quakerism.As far as gender is concerned,among them there were a relatively large proportion of females,which seemed to be a result ofgender equality advocated by Quakerism.In terms of social identity,it can be found that quite afew of them were activists in the abolitionist movements and women’s rights movements,whichwas the socialization of Quaker’s values of abolitionism and gender equality.From theperspective of religious identity,it was a surprise that the majority of them were not Quakersthemselves,which might be attributed to Quaker’s small populations,their refusal of art andtheir simplicity philosophy.Yet,all of them bore the imprint of Quakerism in their lives andthoughts,which made reliable their literary observations and descriptions of Quakerism.
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